MOLECULAR DYNAMICS SIMULATION OF MICROCRACK HEALING IN TITANIUM ALLOY UNDER LASER SHOCK
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摘要: 钛合金因其优异性能在工程领域应用广泛, 然而在加工及服役过程中不可避免在表面引入微缺陷. 激光冲击可有效实现金属表面损伤修复, 提高钛合金结构器件使用安全性和可靠性. 明确激光冲击钛合金微缺陷愈合机理及力学响应对材料安全服役具有重要意义. 因此, 本文基于Ti-6wt%Al合金, 采用分子动力学(MD)方法对含不同晶向微裂纹模型进行激光冲击模拟. 结果发现, 钛合金塑性变形机制及裂纹愈合过程存在显著的晶体取向效应. 沿[0001]晶向冲击时塑性变形以锥面部分位错和短程的基面层错为主; 沿$[10 \bar{\text{1}}0] $晶向冲击时则以晶体再取向为主, 同时伴随“三明治”夹层结构. 该结构是由原子曳步与间隔基面反向滑移叠加而成, 可兼容冲击方向及其垂直方向的几何变形; 而沿$[10 \bar{\text{1}}1] $晶向冲击时会出现大量同向层错堆积诱导相变. 裂纹愈合则由压应力和位错运动主导, 不同晶向微裂纹愈合时间有所差异. 冲击方向为$ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $时最易愈合, 此时基面层错最容易在裂纹表面形核堆积. 此外, 对比冲击前后多晶模型的拉伸力学性能及残余应力分布, 裂纹愈合后模型的抗拉强度和应变明显提升, 其两端呈现残余压应力状态, 并进一步探讨了MD模拟与激光冲击的理论关系. 该仿真结果可为激光冲击强化及修复技术实施提供一定理论依据.Abstract: Titanium alloy has been widely used in the engineering field due to its excellent properties, however, the microdefects are unavoidable near the surface during the processing and service environment. The laser shock peening technology can effectively repair the surface damage, improving the safety and reliability of titanium alloy. Understanding the microdefect healing mechanism and mechanical response of titanium alloy under the laser shock is of great significance for the material safety in service. Therefore, based on the Ti-6wt%Al alloy, the crack evolution mechanisms with different orientations under the laser shock are studied through the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The plastic deformation mechanism of titanium alloy shows the obvious orientation correlation. It is dominated by the partial pyramidal dislocation and short stacking fault (SF) for [0001] orientation model, and the crystalline reorientation accompanied by the “sandwich” structure for $ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $ orientation model. The structure is superimposed by the atomic shuffling and reverse glide in interval basal plane, which can be compatible with the geometric deformation of impact direction and vertical direction. While for $[10 \bar{\text{1}}1] $ orientation model, the phase transformation is induced by multiple SFs. The healing time of microcracks with different orientations is discrepant, which is closely related to the compression stress and dislocation activation. It is easiest to heal for $[10 \bar{\text{1}}1] $ orientation crack due to the nucleation and accumulation of multiple dislocations on the crack surface. In addition, the tensile mechanical property and residual stress distribution of polycrystalline models before and after impact are comprehensively compared. The tensile strength and the corresponding strain of polycrystalline model after crack healing are significantly improved, and the two ends present the residual compressive stress due to the boundary condition. The theoretical relationship between MD simulation and laser shock is further discussed. The simulation results can provide a theoretical guidance for the laser shock peening and repair technology.
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Keywords:
- laser shock /
- microcrack /
- molecular dynamics /
- cystalline orientation /
- titanium alloy
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引 言
钛合金具有低密度、高强度、耐高温等特点, 在航空航天、机械装备等领域具有广泛应用[1-2]. 然而钛合金在成型、加工及服役过程中不可避免会引入微裂纹及微孔洞等缺陷, 在长期交变载荷作用下这些缺陷往往会成为裂纹萌生扩展的起点, 严重影响钛合金结构器件使用安全性和可靠性[3-6]. 激光冲击强化技术(loser shock processing, LSP)是一种金属表面改性技术, 利用高能脉冲激光诱导冲击波作用于金属表面, 使其产生高应变率(> 106 s−1)塑性变形, 能够有效实现表层微缺陷修复, 进而提高材料力学性能和疲劳寿命[7-12]. Tong等[13]通过对比激光冲击前后TC11钛合金腐蚀层表面形貌, 发现处理后的表面裂纹数量大大减少. Kalentics等[14]采用不同LSP参数对镍基高温合金进行表面处理, 量化了LSP参数对试样体裂纹密度的影响, 在一定作用条件下可实现高达95%的显著降低. 因此, 明确激光冲击钛合金微缺陷愈合机理及力学响应, 对材料安全服役具有重要意义.
目前, 围绕金属中微裂纹及微孔洞的激光冲击愈合现象开展了大量研究[15-17]. 微缺陷愈合主要归因于残余压应力的引入[18-20]. 然而在压应力作用下缺陷愈合机制、微结构演化行为却尚未明确. 在微纳尺度下, 激光冲击强化机理和作用效果与晶体取向是密切相关的[21-25]. 杜欣等[22]通过对不同方向的单晶高熵合金进行冲击模拟, 发现冲击时弹、塑性双波分离现象, 微结构演化及残余应力分布均具有明显的取向相关性. Zhou等[26]在单晶铝微裂纹愈合模拟中发现裂纹愈合所需的临界温度取决于裂纹面的方向, 相较而言, (111)面裂纹愈合所需临界温度最低. 杨晓悦等[27]探讨了含圆柱孔洞镁合金模型在冲击波作用下孔洞表面位错形核与演化的过程, 揭示了不同取向下的孔洞坍缩机制. 邓小良等[28]探究了金属铜内部双孔洞连线与冲击加载方向不同夹角对沿(100)面冲击加载下双孔洞贯通过程的影响, 夹角为0°和30°时双孔洞之间未发生贯穿, 夹角为60°和90°时双孔洞都出现贯穿现象, 且夹角为60°时更容易贯穿. 常温下钛合金通常为密排六方(hexagonal close-packed, HCP)晶格结构, 晶体各向异性更为显著, 亟待开展激光冲击钛合金微缺陷修复取向效应及力学行为研究.
分子动力学(molecular dynamics, MD)模拟是一种从经典力学出发, 以原子为基本单位, 基于原子间的相互作用势, 运用统计力学、热力学、计算方法的数值模拟, 主要用于描述原子体系的动/静态特征和运动规律, 是揭示激光冲击金属微组织演化过程及强化机理的有效途径. 因此, 本文基于MD方法, 对含有不同取向微裂纹的HCP相钛铝合金模型进行冲击模拟. 深入探讨裂纹附近缺陷激活、动态演化及愈合行为的取向影响、模型冲击前后的拉伸力学性能, 并对MD冲击与激光冲击理论关系进行讨论.
1. 冲击模型和加载方法
本文以HCP相Ti-6wt%Al合金为研究对象探究激光冲击微裂纹演化的晶体取向效应及对力学性能的影响. 如图1所示, 建立了3种晶体取向的分子动力学模型, 晶体取向分别对应x[0001], $y[10 \bar{\text{1}}1] $, $ z[1\bar{\text{2}}10] $; $ x[10\bar{\text{1}}0] $, y[0001], $z[1 \bar{\text{2}}10] $; 以及$ x[10\bar{\text{1}}1] $, y垂直于$(10 \bar{\text{1}}\bar{\text{2}}) $面, $ z[1\bar{\text{2}}10] $.
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图 1 不同晶体取向钛合金冲击模型示意图Figure 1. Shock models of Ti alloy along different crystal orientations在确立模型尺寸前, 分别对不同尺寸模型冲击响应进行了初步探索, 重点考虑了x与y方向尺寸比例的影响. 研究发现, 保持y方向尺寸不变, 冲击方向尺寸在100 ~ 300 nm范围内的微结构演化行为是相似的, 因此考虑计算资源, 选取了模型尺寸为$ \text{102 nm × 25 nm × 1.8 nm} $来进行详细分析. 根据钛铝合金相图[29], HCP相中Al原子质量分数一般控制在约10%以内. 本文将部分Ti原子随机替换为Al原子, 使其质量分数达到6%. 冲击方向x采取固定边界位移条件, 其他方向均为周期边界条件. 预制的微裂纹尺寸均约为$ \text{24 nm × 2 nm × 1.8 nm} $, 距离冲击端与冲击区域连接处10 nm.
本文基于Lammps程序[25], 通过活塞法[30]进行冲击加载模拟, 即对边界处2 nm原子采用命令使其保持刚性且内应力始终为零, 对其施加初速度500 m/s撞击基体诱导冲击波产生. 采用Zope等[31]提出的EAM势函数来模拟钛铝合金原子间相互作用
$$ E = \frac{1}{2}\sum\limits_{i,j} {{\phi _{ij}}} \left( {{r_i}_j} \right) + \sum\limits_i {{F_i}} \left( {{\rho _i}} \right) $$ (1) 其中, E为体系的总能量, $ {{\phi _{ij}}} \left( {{r_i}_j} \right)$为i和j原子之间的相互作用势, rij为i和j原子之间的距离, ρi为i原子所存在环境中的电荷密度, Fi(ρi)为i原子在其他原子组成的环境中的嵌入能. 冲击加载前, 通过Nosé-Hoover方法进行等温调节使体系在300 K的温度下弛豫50 ps, 使体系达到热力学平衡, 时间步长为1 fs. 冲击加载时长控制在5 ps内, 随后进行充分的弛豫, 时长为600 ps. 每隔一定步数记录原子坐标位置等信息, 通过Ovito软件[32], 利用共邻分析法和位错提取法进行微观结构演化可视化.
2. 结果与分析
2.1 冲击过程微结构演变
不同取向裂纹在冲击作用下的微观结构如图2所示, 冲击方向分别为[0001], $[10 \bar{\text{1}}0] $和$ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $. 为明确冲击强弱对塑性变形行为的影响, 冲击时间分别控制在3, 4和5 ps. 蓝色原子代表HCP结构, 绿色原子代表面心立方(FCC)结构, 红色原子代表体心立方(BCC)结构, 白色原子代表无序结构. 结果表明冲击作用时间仅影响晶体损伤面积, 并不影响局部变形机制.
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图 2 不同冲击方向及冲击时间下钛合金微观结构Figure 2. Microstructure of Ti alloy under shock along different crystal orientations and impact times当冲击方向为[0001]晶向时(图2(a)), 由于冲击波在微裂纹尖端产生的应力集中作用, 基面层错和锥面部分位错在裂纹尖端优先形核. 该基面层错伯格斯矢量为传统的1/3$ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $, 由于激光冲击加载方向与晶体基面垂直, 其在$ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $方向的分切应力较小, 层错生长速度受到限制, 多呈现短程状态. 锥面位错相较于基面位错和柱面位错, 伯格斯矢量大, 激活能高, 因此在该取向冲击时以连续的锥面部分位错为主, 滑移面为$ \{10\bar{\text{1}}1\} $面, 原子结构(红框区域)放大如图3(a)所示, 同时在滑移带及微裂纹尖端伴有小部分非晶区域.
当冲击方向为$ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $晶向时(图2(b)), 此时基面与冲击方向平行, 在冲击波作用下微裂纹尖端出现少量基面层错, 微裂纹尖端同时伴有晶粒转向现象. 通过局部原子结构分析可知, 该晶粒转向为一种特殊的晶体再取向行为, 即基体的基面向转向晶粒的柱面转化, 两晶粒界面通常由$ \{10\bar{\text{1}}2\} $孪晶界和基/柱界面交替组成(图3(b)). 该现象在HCP镁的原位实验和原子模拟中均有报道[33-34]. 值得注意的是, 在晶粒转向的同时伴随产生大量“三明治”夹层结构(黑框区域), 局部放大如图4所示, 该结构由单层FCC和单层HCP原子交替堆叠. 结合拓扑结构分析其形成机理, 线原子代表变形前晶体, 实心原子代表变形后晶体. 原子曳步主导晶粒完成转向, 同时原子层2, 3之间及原子层3, 4之间伴随反向的基面滑移, 可兼容冲击方向压缩及其垂直方向拉伸的协调变形, 而不会产生累积的剪切变形.
当冲击方向为$ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $晶向时(图2(c)), 基面与冲击方向呈现约43°夹角, 该面内分切应力较大, 在活塞与基体交界及微裂纹尖端均有大量基面层错产生. 当冲击作用较大时, 裂尖附近会诱发HCP-FCC相变, 如图5所示, 在相变区与基体间也会存在一定的弯折. HCP-FCC相变是由每间隔两层的同向基面位错堆积而成, 在$ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $方向产生累积的剪切变形.
2.2 保载弛豫过程微结构演变
激光冲击结束后, 将模型两端施加固定约束, 在NVE系综下保载弛豫600 ps, 使冲击波在模型内充分传播. 研究发现, 不同冲击时间模型弛豫过程裂纹愈合机理是一致的, 以冲击时间为5 ps的保载弛豫模型为例进行说明.
图6所示为不同晶向微裂纹愈合过程, 图中0, 1.5, 3.2和4.5 ps是指模型保载弛豫时间. 对于[0001]晶向冲击模型, 在弛豫阶段裂纹附近很难再形成新的锥面位错, 微观组织缺陷以短程的基面位错和局域非晶化为主; 对于$ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $晶向冲击模型, 随着弛豫时间转向晶粒逐渐生长, 由于裂纹处伴随位错释放应力, 局部非晶化现象较少; 对于$ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $晶向冲击模型, 大量基面层错被激发、堆叠, 相变区也随之增大. 通过原子结构动态演化分析, 3种模型裂纹愈合主要源于快速冲击引起挤压变形.
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图 6 不同取向微裂纹愈合演化过程Figure 6. Crack healing processes in models with different orientations不同晶体取向微裂纹愈合的难易受到冲击时间及位错的影响. 通常, 冲击时间越长, 塑性变形区越大, 弛豫过程中微裂纹愈合越快. 相较而言, $ [10\bar{\text{1}} 1]$晶向裂纹愈合速度要快一些. 当弛豫时间为3.2 ps时, [0001]晶向和$ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $晶向裂纹均未完全愈合; 当弛豫时间为4.5 ps时, 3种晶向裂纹全部愈合. 此时模型的位错分布如图7所示, 并通过位错提取法统计了位错长度随弛豫时间(0 ~ 4.5 ps)的变化(图8). 对于$ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $晶向冲击模型, 在冲击后和裂纹愈合过程均保持最多的位错. 同向位错滑移使得在微裂纹表面形成累积错阶, 减小裂纹间距, 加之原子间的范德华力, 从而加速裂纹愈合.
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图 7 不同取向模型中位错分布Figure 7. Dislocation distribution in models with different orientations2.3 裂纹取向影响
此外, 为探究裂纹愈合与冲击方向的关系, 保持水平加载晶向不变, 构建了不同倾角裂纹模型(α = 0° ~ 90°), 如图9(a)所示. 由于各模型加载取向一致, 在冲击和保载弛豫阶段其塑性变形机理是类似的. 以[0001]晶向加载为例, 冲击速度为500 m/s, 冲击时间为4 ps. 当裂纹长度方向与竖直方向夹角约43°时, 裂纹所在晶体取向为$ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $, 微裂纹愈合过程如图9(b)和图9(c)所示. 与水平裂纹模型(图6(a))对比, 其塑性变形仍以基面层错和锥面部分位错为主, 然而倾角不同, 不同类型位错比重有所差别, 裂纹愈合速度受到密切影响.
2.4 拉伸力学性能
为了探明裂纹愈合行为对材料力学性能的影响, 我们对裂纹愈合前后的单晶模型进行了拉伸模拟, 发现裂纹愈合后单晶模型屈服强度并未得到提高. 这是由于初始的单晶模型为完美晶体, 理论强度极高. 模型在冲击后, 裂纹虽然愈合但同时引入的大量缺陷, 成为新缺陷的形核源. 通常, 实际材料中包含晶界、位错等多种缺陷. 因此, 我们进一步基于多晶模型, 探究裂纹愈合前后材料拉伸力学性能. 多晶模型尺寸为102 nm × 25 nm × 6 nm, 晶粒取向随机, 裂纹方向沿x方向, 拉伸应变率均为108/s, 采用NVT系统, 环境温度和时间步长等其他模拟参数同第2小节.
多晶模型在500 m/s的冲击速度及5 ps的冲击时间下, 裂纹同样会发生愈合. 相应的微观结构如图10所示, 在引入基面层错的同时也出现局部晶粒细化现象. 进而, 针对有/无裂纹模型及裂纹愈合模型分别进行拉伸模拟, 由拉伸模拟的应力-应变曲线可知, 无裂纹模型抗拉强度约为2.0 GPa, 拉伸应变约为6.9%; 含裂纹模型抗拉强度与拉伸应变明显降低; 裂纹愈合后模型抗拉强度得到明显改善, 达到2.18 GPa, 拉伸应变提升到7.5%. 可见, 冲击引起裂纹愈合能明显改善材料的拉伸力学性能.
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图 10 多晶模型微观结构及相应应力-应变曲线Figure 10. Microstructure of polycrystalline model and corresponding stress-strain curves2.5 残余应力分布
进一步对比分析了多晶模型冲击前后残余应力分布情况. 模型在NVE系综下进行卸载, 当全局应力水平达到动态平衡时, 残余应力$ {\sigma _{xx}} $沿冲击方向深度的分布曲线如图11所示, 可以发现在模型冲击端和底端附近均表现为残余压应力, 幅值约为0.14 GPa; 中间区域表现为残余拉应力, 幅值约为0.38 GPa. 一方面, 裂纹区域受到冲击后会产生相对较多的位错, 引起更加显著的塑性变形; 另一方面, 可能由于边界约束, 引起冲击波反射, 造成残余应力呈现双向冲击分布效应[22,35].
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图 11 残余应力$ {\sigma _{xx}} $沿深度分布曲线Figure 11. Residual stress $ {\sigma _{xx}} $ along depth distribution curve2.6 活塞冲击与激光冲击的理论关系讨论
通过MD模拟结果可知, 裂纹愈合行为存在明显的晶体取向效应, 冲击作用强度密切影响裂纹愈合时间及内部损伤程度, 合理地控制激光冲击参数对改善材料性能尤为重要. 活塞速度Up与激光功率密度I0之间关系可表达为[36-37]
$$ \left.\begin{aligned} & {{U_p} = \frac{{2{\sigma _{{\mathrm{HEL}}}}}}{{3\lambda + 2G}} \left( {\frac{{{P_{\max }}}}{{{\sigma _{{\mathrm{HEL}}}}}} - 1} \right) \frac{L}{{{\Delta }t}}} \\ & {{P_{\max }} = 0.01 \sqrt {Z{I_0}} \sqrt { {\frac{\alpha }{{2\alpha + 3}}} } } \end{aligned}\right\} $$ (2) 其中, Up为活塞的速度, G为剪切模量, λ为材料的Lame常数, σHEL为钛铝合金材料的Hugoniot弹性极限, Pmax为冲击波的峰值压力, L为钛铝合金纳米模型沿Up方向的标定长度, $\Delta t $为时间增量, I0为激光的功率密度, Z为约束层与靶材之间的折合声阻抗, α为用于激光诱导等离子体内能系数.
本文利用活塞速度Up为500 m/s, 对不同晶体取向的钛合金冲击加载, 并选用3, 4和5 ps的活塞加载时间, 此时假设采用1 ~ 2 mm厚水层作为约束层, 厚度为0.12 mm的铝箔作为吸收层, 激光诱导等离子体内能系数α = 0.2[38], 根据式(2)中Fabbro提出的激光诱导冲击波理论公式可得冲击波压力峰值分别约为4.326, 5.171和6.018 GPa, 则激光的功率密度分别约为7.024, 7.679和8.284 GW/cm2, 该分析可为激光冲击强化实验参数选择提供一定理论依据.
3. 结 论
本文采用MD方法对含微裂纹的Ti-6wt%Al合金进行了冲击模拟, 重点探究了不同晶向对钛合金塑性变形机理、裂纹愈合演化的影响, 进一步基于多晶模型对比了裂纹愈合前后模型的拉伸力学性能及残余应力分布, 讨论了MD模拟与激光冲击的理论关系. 在冲击加载阶段, 对于[0001]晶向模型, 塑性变形机制主要由裂纹周围晶格畸变诱发的短程层错和连续的锥面部分位错主导; 对于$ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $晶向模型, 则由大量基面层错堆积导致HCP-FCC相变; 而对于$ [10\bar{\text{1}}0] $晶向模型, 除产生传统的基面层错外, 主要激发晶粒转向, 同时伴有“三明治”夹层结构. 该夹层结构由单层HCP和FCC结构交替组成, 由原子曳步和间隔基面反向滑移协同形成. 在保载弛豫阶段, 由于冲击波作用裂纹逐渐愈合. 裂纹愈合机制主要与压应力及位错运动有关. $ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $晶向加载时裂纹最易愈合, 该取向下基面层错最容易激活; 而[0001]晶向加载时, 基面滑移受到约束, 锥面位错激活困难; $ [10\bar{\text{1}}1] $晶向加载时界面运动释放应力, 位错也相对较少. 从多晶模型拉伸模拟中可知裂纹愈合能明显地恢复材料抗拉强度. 进一步建立了MD冲击参数与激光功率密度的关系, 为激光冲击钛合金表面修复提供一定理论指导.
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图 1 不同晶体取向钛合金冲击模型示意图
Figure 1. Shock models of Ti alloy along different crystal orientations
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图 2 不同冲击方向及冲击时间下钛合金微观结构
Figure 2. Microstructure of Ti alloy under shock along different crystal orientations and impact times
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图 6 不同取向微裂纹愈合演化过程
Figure 6. Crack healing processes in models with different orientations
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图 7 不同取向模型中位错分布
Figure 7. Dislocation distribution in models with different orientations
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图 10 多晶模型微观结构及相应应力-应变曲线
Figure 10. Microstructure of polycrystalline model and corresponding stress-strain curves
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